{
 "about": "The pacing study, 23 October 2026: 24 technologies, the date each reached the public (t0), and the first rule naming it, or a category that includes it, at six levels, each cell coded twice independently and reconciled under rules D1 to D8 (written before any result). The main analysis counts binding rules; rows in \"apart\" (executive orders, funding riders, licences, court rulings, taxes, permits) are recorded and left out. Confidence: H read at a primary source, M from an official history or a year-level record, L weak. Method, predictions and limitations are on the study page, /research/pacing/ at bentleymoon.com.",
 "read": "2026-10-23",
 "levels": [
  "local",
  "us_federal",
  "uk",
  "eu",
  "standard",
  "treaty"
 ],
 "technologies": [
  {
   "name": "Telephone",
   "set": "new",
   "t0": "1877-05-01",
   "t0What": "Bell telephones first offered for lease to the public by Gardiner Hubbard's circular dated Cambridge, Mass., May 1877 (social use $20 a year, business use $40 a year); 778 telephones leased by 31 July 1877. Month only, so the 1st is used. Reconciled under D4: the earliest date the public could lease telephones and use them; month only, flagged under D7. Sensitivity: first commercial exchange, New Haven, 1878-01-28.",
   "t0Source": "Hubbard circular dated 'Cambridge, Mass., May, 1877', reprinted in Popular Science Monthly vol. 69 (December 1906), 'Notes on the Development of Telephone Service II', https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly/Volume_69/December_1906/Notes_on_the_Development_of_Telephone_Service_II. Alternative: first commercial exchange, New Haven, 1878-01-28 (connecticuthistory.org).",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": "Maine, Private and Special Laws 1880, chapter 303, 'An act relating to Telephone Companies'",
     "adopted": "1880-03-18",
     "tookEffect": "1880-03-18",
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://lldc.mainelegislature.org/Open/Laws/1880/1880_PS_c303.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": "Mann-Elkins Act, Act of June 18, 1910, ch. 309, 36 Stat. 539 (amending the Act to regulate commerce)",
     "adopted": "1910-06-18",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-36/pdf/STATUTE-36-Pg539.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": "Telegraph Act 1892 (55 & 56 Vict. c. 59)",
     "adopted": "1892-06-28",
     "tookEffect": "1892-06-28",
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Vict/55-56/59/pdfs/ukpga_18920059_en.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": "Council Directive 86/361/EEC on the initial stage of the mutual recognition of type approval for telecommunications terminal equipment",
     "adopted": "1986-07-24",
     "tookEffect": "1986-08-05",
     "type": "directive",
     "source": "http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/1986/361/oj",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Ceased to apply 1992-11-06 (replaced by later terminal equipment directives)."
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": "International Telegraph Regulations (Reglement de service international) revised at Berlin, annexed to the St Petersburg Telegraph Convention, Article LXVII on telephone service",
     "adopted": "1885-09-17",
     "tookEffect": "1886-07-01",
     "type": "treaty",
     "source": "https://search.itu.int/history/HistoryDigitalCollectionDocLibrary/4.21.43.fr.200.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Replaced by later revisions (London 1903 expanded the telephone rules)."
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": "CCIF (International Telephone Consultative Committee) avis of the 1st Plenary Assembly, Paris, 28 April to 3 May 1924",
     "adopted": "1924-04-28",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "standard",
     "source": "https://search.itu.int/history/HistoryDigitalCollectionDocLibrary/12.16.75.fr.pdf",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    }
   },
   "apart": [
    {
     "rule": "War Revenue Act of 1898, ch. 448, 30 Stat. 448, Schedule A 'Telephone messages' (30 Stat. 460)",
     "adopted": "1898-06-13",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "tax",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/link/statute/30/460",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Telephone tax repealed in 1902 (after it had taken effect), per CRS report RL30553.",
     "level": "us_federal"
    },
    {
     "rule": "District of Columbia appropriations act for fiscal 1889, ch. 676, 25 Stat. 314, provision on overhead wires (25 Stat. 323 to 324)",
     "adopted": "1888-07-18",
     "tookEffect": "1888-09-15",
     "type": "rider",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/link/statute/25/323",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Still codified at D.C. Code 34-1901.01.",
     "level": "us_federal"
    },
    {
     "rule": "Indian Department appropriations act, March 3, 1901, ch. 832, sec. 3, 31 Stat. 1083: rights of way for telephone and telegraph lines through Indian lands, with damages and an annual tax",
     "adopted": "1901-03-03",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "rider",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-31/pdf/STATUTE-31-Pg1058.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "us_federal"
    },
    {
     "rule": "Act of February 15, 1901, ch. 372, 31 Stat. 790: the Secretary of the Interior may permit rights of way through public lands, reservations and parks for telephone and telegraph lines and electrical plants",
     "adopted": "1901-02-15",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "permit",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/link/statute/31/790",
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "us_federal"
    },
    {
     "rule": "Attorney-General v Edison Telephone Company of London (1880) 6 QBD 244",
     "adopted": "1880-12-20",
     "tookEffect": "1880-12-20",
     "type": "ruling",
     "source": "https://www.bt.com/bt-plc/assets/documents/about-bt/our-history/bt-archives/information-sheets-and-timelines/private-and-municipal-telephone-companies.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "uk"
    },
    {
     "rule": "Postmaster-General's 31-year licence to the United Telephone Company",
     "adopted": "1881-01-01",
     "tookEffect": "1881-01-01",
     "type": "licence",
     "source": "https://www.bt.com/bt-plc/assets/documents/about-bt/our-history/bt-archives/information-sheets-and-timelines/private-and-municipal-telephone-companies.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "uk"
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "name": "Electric power",
   "set": "new",
   "t0": "1879-09-01",
   "t0What": "California Electric Light Company, San Francisco, began selling electricity from a central station to customers' Brush arc lamps in September 1879 (month only, the 1st used, flagged under D7). Reconciled under D4 as the earliest public supply to paying customers. The September 1879 start is in the San Francisco Municipal Reports (1897) as quoted, and PG&E's own company histories call San Francisco the first city with a central station selling to electric customers (seen in a search summary); neither was read in the original. Earliest date read at a primary source, and the sensitivity alternative: Godalming, 1881-09-26 (Surrey Advertiser of 1 October 1881, quoted by the Godalming Museum).",
   "t0Source": "San Francisco Municipal Reports (1897), p. 374, quoted at https://todayinsci.com/Events/Electrical/CalElecLightCo.htm; PG&E company histories (via search); alternative https://godalmingmuseum.co.uk/articles/electricity",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": "New York, Laws of 1884, chapter 534: telegraphic, telephonic and electric light wires in cities to be placed underground",
     "adopted": "1884-01-01",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USREPORTS-145/pdf/USREPORTS-145-175.pdf",
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": "Federal Water Power Act, Act of June 10, 1920, ch. 285, 41 Stat. 1063",
     "adopted": "1920-06-10",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-41/pdf/STATUTE-41-Pg1063-2.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": "Electric Lighting Act 1882 (45 & 46 Vict. c. 56)",
     "adopted": "1882-08-18",
     "tookEffect": "1882-08-18",
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Vict/45-46/56/pdfs/ukpga_18820056_en.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Repealed long after taking effect (Electricity Act 1989)."
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": "Council Regulation (EEC) No 1056/72 on notifying the Commission of investment projects of interest to the Community in the petroleum, natural gas and electricity sectors",
     "adopted": "1972-05-18",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "regulation",
     "source": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/celex/31972R1056",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": "Convention relating to the Transmission in Transit of Electric Power, and Protocol of Signature (League of Nations)",
     "adopted": "1923-12-09",
     "tookEffect": "1926-07-26",
     "type": "treaty",
     "source": "https://treaties.fcdo.gov.uk/data/Library2/pdf/1925-TS0025.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": "IEC 60038 (IEC 38) Edition 1.0, IEC standard voltages",
     "adopted": "1927-01-01",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "standard",
     "source": "https://austrian-standards.at/en/shop/iec-60038-2009-ed-7-0-2009-06-17~p2905648",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    }
   },
   "apart": [
    {
     "rule": "New York, Laws of 1879, chapter 512, 'An act to authorize gas-light companies to use electricity instead of gas for the lighting of streets, public places and public and private buildings in cities, villages and towns within this state'",
     "adopted": "1879-01-01",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "permit",
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": "Amended by Laws of 1882, chapter 73.",
     "level": "local"
    },
    {
     "rule": "District of Columbia appropriations act for fiscal 1889, ch. 676, 25 Stat. 314, provision on overhead wires (25 Stat. 323 to 324)",
     "adopted": "1888-07-18",
     "tookEffect": "1888-09-15",
     "type": "rider",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/link/statute/25/323",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Still codified at D.C. Code 34-1901.01.",
     "level": "us_federal"
    },
    {
     "rule": "Act of May 14, 1896, ch. 179, 29 Stat. 120: the Secretary of the Interior may permit use of rights of way through public lands for generating, manufacturing or distributing electric power",
     "adopted": "1896-05-14",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "permit",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/link/statute/29/120",
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "us_federal"
    },
    {
     "rule": "Act of February 15, 1901, ch. 372, 31 Stat. 790: rights of way for electrical plants, poles and lines for the generation and distribution of electrical power",
     "adopted": "1901-02-15",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "permit",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/link/statute/31/790",
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "us_federal"
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "name": "Motor car",
   "set": "pilot",
   "t0": "1888-01-01",
   "t0What": "Benz Patent-Motorwagen first sold to customers (Emile Roger in Paris took the Benz agency in 1888; Benz and Cie. advertised the car for sale in 1888). Known only to the year: D7 sets 1 Jan 1888 and flags it (both coders had used 1 Jul as a mid-year placeholder).",
   "t0Source": "https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co26147/three-wheeled-motor-car (coder A); Mercedes-Benz Classic archive entries seen only as quoted extracts (coder B). Year-level, D7 flag.",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": "City of Chicago ordinance creating the Board of Examiners of Operators of Automobiles and requiring operators to be examined and licensed",
     "adopted": "1899-07-06",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.thehenryford.org/collections/explore/artifact/353708",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": "An Act regulating the speed of automobiles in the District of Columbia, and for other purposes (34 Stat. 621, ch. 3615)",
     "adopted": "1906-06-29",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://code.dccouncil.gov/us/dc/council/code/sections/50-2201.08",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": "Locomotives on Highways Act 1896 (59 & 60 Vict. c. 36)",
     "adopted": "1896-08-14",
     "tookEffect": "1896-11-14",
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Vict/59-60/36/contents/enacted",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": "Council Directive 70/156/EEC on the type-approval of motor vehicles and their trailers",
     "adopted": "1970-02-06",
     "tookEffect": "1970-02-10",
     "type": "directive",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/eudr/1970/156/contents",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": "International Convention with respect to the Circulation of Motor Vehicles (Paris)",
     "adopted": "1909-10-11",
     "tookEffect": "1910-05-01",
     "type": "treaty",
     "source": "https://treaties.fcdo.gov.uk/data/Library2/pdf/1910-TS0018.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": "ISO/R 303: Lighting and signalling for motor vehicles and trailers",
     "adopted": "1963-01-01",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "standard",
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": "Withdrawn 1986, replaced by ISO 303:1986."
    }
   },
   "apart": [
    {
     "rule": "Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act (An Act to provide revenue, equalize duties and encourage the industries of the United States), ch. 6, 36 Stat. 11, Schedule C para. 141",
     "adopted": "1909-08-05",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "tax",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-36/pdf/STATUTE-36-Pg11-3.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "us_federal"
    },
    {
     "rule": "War Department order barring automobiles from Yellowstone National Park (on the acting superintendent's request)",
     "adopted": "1902-06-15",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "executive order",
     "source": "https://cowboystatedaily.com/2026/05/16/wyoming-history-first-car-in-yellowstone-was-a-gate-crasher-who-got-cars-banned/",
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": "Ban lifted by the Secretary of the Interior on 1 Aug 1915 (parkwide opening to automobiles).",
     "level": "us_federal"
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "name": "Commercial aviation",
   "set": "pilot",
   "t0": "1914-01-01",
   "t0What": "St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line flew the first scheduled passenger airline service with winged aircraft (Benoist XIV, pilot Tony Jannus), 1 Jan 1914. DELAG passenger airship flights from 1910 are not counted.",
   "t0Source": "https://stars.library.ucf.edu/fhq/vol58/iss1/7 (Provenzo, Florida Historical Quarterly 58(1), 1979; scholarly, not official)",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": "Connecticut: An Act Concerning the Registration, Numbering, and Use of Air Ships, and the Licensing of Operators Thereof",
     "adopted": "1911-06-08",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://connecticuthistory.org/airborne-pioneers-connecticuts-many-contributions-to-air-transportation",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": "Air Commerce Act of 1926, ch. 344, 44 Stat. 568",
     "adopted": "1926-05-20",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-44/pdf/STATUTE-44-Pg568.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": "Aerial Navigation Act 1911 (1 & 2 Geo. 5 c. 4)",
     "adopted": "1911-06-02",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1911/jun/02/royal-assent",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": "Council Directive 80/51/EEC on the limitation of noise emissions from subsonic aircraft",
     "adopted": "1979-12-20",
     "tookEffect": "1979-12-21",
     "type": "directive",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/eudr/1980?title=aircraft",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Repealed later; not before it took effect."
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": "Convention relating to the Regulation of Aerial Navigation (Paris)",
     "adopted": "1919-10-13",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "treaty",
     "source": "https://treaties.fcdo.gov.uk/data/Library2/pdf/TS0002.1922.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": "ISO/R 10 (ISO/TC 20 Aircraft; revised by ISO 1034:1973)",
     "adopted": "1955-12-01",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "standard",
     "source": "https://genorma.com/en/standards/iso-r-10-1955",
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": "Withdrawn; revised by ISO 1034:1973."
    }
   },
   "apart": [
    {
     "rule": "Regulation (EEC) No 1769/68 of the Commission on air transport costs to be included in the value for customs purposes",
     "adopted": "1968-11-06",
     "tookEffect": "1969-01-01",
     "type": "tax",
     "source": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/celex/31968R1769",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "eu"
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "name": "Radio broadcasting",
   "set": "pilot",
   "t0": "1920-11-02",
   "t0What": "KDKA (Westinghouse, East Pittsburgh) began scheduled broadcasting with the Harding-Cox election returns.",
   "t0Source": "https://ethw.org/Milestones:Westinghouse_Radio_Station_KDKA,_1920 (IEEE Milestone citation, read by coder B); FCC history page https://www.fcc.gov/node/241581 (coder A; the page did not load)",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": "City of Minneapolis ordinance on radio interference requiring broadcasting stations to move their towers outside the city limits and barring simultaneous broadcasting by local stations",
     "adopted": "1927-01-01",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://billkirkpatrick.net/download/kirkpatrickbill_jram_regulationbeforeregulation.pdf",
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": "Radio Act of 1927, ch. 169, 44 Stat. 1162",
     "adopted": "1927-02-23",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-44/pdf/STATUTE-44-Pg1162.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": "Representation of the People Act 1948 (11 & 12 Geo. 6 c. 65), election broadcasts from outside the United Kingdom (Bill clause 35; re-enacted as Representation of the People Act 1949 s. 80 and now 1983 s. 92)",
     "adopted": "1948-07-30",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1948/apr/20/clause-35-election-propaganda",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": "Consolidated into the Representation of the People Act 1949 (s. 80), after it took effect."
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": "Council Directive 92/100/EEC on rental right and lending right and on certain rights related to copyright",
     "adopted": "1992-11-19",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "directive",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/eudr/1992/100/adopted",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Repealed later (codified by Directive 2006/115/EC); not before it took effect."
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": "International Radiotelegraph Convention and General Regulations (Washington)",
     "adopted": "1927-11-25",
     "tookEffect": "1929-01-01",
     "type": "treaty",
     "source": "https://search.itu.int/history/HistoryDigitalCollectionDocLibrary/4.39.43.en.100.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": "CCIR (ITU) 1st Plenary Assembly, The Hague: recommendations (avis) including the limitation of power of broadcasting transmitters and channel spacing for broadcasting stations",
     "adopted": "1929-10-02",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "standard",
     "source": "https://www.itu.int/itunews/manager/display.asp?lang=fr&year=2004&issue=09&ipage=ccir-meetings&ext=html",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    }
   },
   "apart": [
    {
     "rule": "Department of Commerce licence for KDKA (first station licensed for broadcasting, under the Radio Act of 1912)",
     "adopted": "1920-10-27",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "licence",
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "us_federal"
    },
    {
     "rule": "Department of Commerce amendment to radio regulations creating broadcasting service under the Limited Commercial class (360 m for news and concerts, 485 m for crop reports and weather), published in Radio Service Bulletin No. 57, 3 Jan 1922",
     "adopted": "1921-12-01",
     "tookEffect": "1921-12-01",
     "type": "licence",
     "source": "https://earlyradiohistory.us/1919amnd.htm",
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "us_federal"
    },
    {
     "rule": "Postmaster General's broadcasting licence to the British Broadcasting Company (under the Wireless Telegraphy Act 1904)",
     "adopted": "1923-01-18",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "licence",
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "uk"
    },
    {
     "rule": "Wireless Telegraphy (Blind Persons Facilities) Act 1926 (16 & 17 Geo. 5 c. 54)",
     "adopted": "1926-12-15",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "tax",
     "source": "https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1926/dec/15/royal-assent",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "uk"
    },
    {
     "rule": "Regulation (EEC) No 2632/70 of the Commission on determining the origin of radio and television receivers",
     "adopted": "1970-12-23",
     "tookEffect": "1971-01-01",
     "type": "tax",
     "source": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/celex/31970R2632",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "eu"
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "name": "Television",
   "set": "new",
   "t0": "1928-05-10",
   "t0What": "General Electric's station in Schenectady (W2XB, often called WGY) began regular scheduled television broadcasts to the public on 10 May 1928, per the station's own history (now WRGB, seen in a search summary); secondary histories give 11 May. The Federal Radio Commission's Second Annual Report (1928, read) confirms broadcasting stations were by then sending television to the public. Reconciled under D4 as the earliest public broadcast. Later candidates: BBC carriage of Baird 30-line broadcasts 1929-09-30; BBC high-definition service 1936-11-02.",
   "t0Source": "WRGB station history (search summary); FRC Second Annual Report 1927-28, https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-Other-Documments/Radio-Service%20Bulletin/Annual-Reports/FRC-Annual-Report-1927-07-to-1928-09.pdf; Radio News 28 July 1928 schedule via en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WRGB",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": "Minnesota, Laws 1949, chapter 78 (H.F. No. 569), an act relating to the installation and use of television screens in motor vehicles (Minnesota Statutes 169.471)",
     "adopted": "1949-02-28",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.revisor.mn.gov/laws/1949/0/78/",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": "Federal Radio Commission General Order No. 50: picture broadcasting and television broadcasting permitted only on written application and formal authority, on conditions (band width not over 10 kc; not more than one hour a day, not between 6 and 11 p.m.)",
     "adopted": "1928-10-31",
     "tookEffect": "1928-10-31",
     "type": "regulation",
     "source": "https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-Other-Documments/Radio-Service%20Bulletin/Annual-Reports/FRC-Annual-Report-1928-10-to-1929-11.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": "Television Act 1954 (2 & 3 Eliz. 2 c. 55)",
     "adopted": "1954-07-30",
     "tookEffect": "1954-07-30",
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Eliz2/2-3/55/pdfs/ukpga_19540055_en.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Replaced by the Television Act 1964 (after taking effect)."
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": "Council Directive 86/529/EEC on the adoption of common technical specifications of the MAC/packet family of standards for direct satellite television broadcasting",
     "adopted": "1986-11-03",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "directive",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/eudr/1986/529/contents",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Replaced by Directive 92/38/EEC (after taking effect)."
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": "General Radiocommunication Regulations annexed to the International Telecommunication Convention, Madrid 1932",
     "adopted": "1932-12-09",
     "tookEffect": "1934-01-01",
     "type": "treaty",
     "source": "https://search.itu.int/history/HistoryDigitalCollectionDocLibrary/1.5.48.en.100.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Replaced by later Radio Regulations (Geneva 1959)."
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": "CCIR recommendation on television standards, VIth Plenary Assembly, Geneva",
     "adopted": "1951-06-06",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "standard",
     "source": "https://www.itu.int/en/history/Pages/conference.aspx?conf=4.272",
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null
    }
   },
   "apart": [
    {
     "rule": "Federal Radio Commission experimental licences for visual broadcasting (television) stations, for example GE's W2XCW, Schenectady",
     "adopted": "1928-01-13",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "licence",
     "source": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WRGB",
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "us_federal"
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "name": "Mobile phone service",
   "set": "new",
   "t0": "1946-06-17",
   "t0What": "Bell System Mobile Telephone Service opened by Southwestern Bell in St. Louis, Missouri: first mobile telephone service offered to the public (car-mounted radiotelephones connected to the public telephone network).",
   "t0Source": "IEEE History Center, Engineering and Technology History Wiki, 'The Foundations of Mobile and Cellular Telephony' (https://ethw.org/The_Foundations_of_Mobile_and_Cellular_Telephony): first mobile telephone call on a system inaugurated by Southwestern Bell; FCC Twelfth Annual Report (fiscal 1946) confirms the first licence of this kind was granted to Southwestern Bell in June 1946 for St. Louis. First commercial cellular service came later: NTT Tokyo 1979-12-03 (not read at source) and Ameritech Chicago October 1983 (ETHW).",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": "North Carolina Session Laws 1969, chapter 766 (House Bill 988), An Act to grant jurisdiction to the North Carolina Utilities Commission as it relates to radio common carriers",
     "adopted": "1969-06-11",
     "tookEffect": "1969-06-11",
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.ncleg.gov/EnactedLegislation/SessionLaws/PDF/1969-1970/SL1969-766.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": "FCC Report and Order in Dockets 8658 et al., rules for the Domestic Public Land Mobile Services",
     "adopted": "1949-04-27",
     "tookEffect": "1949-07-01",
     "type": "regulation",
     "source": "https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-FCC/FCC-Annual-Reports/FCC-15th-1949.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Later recodified (Part 21, then Part 22); not repealed before taking effect."
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": "Wireless Telegraphy (Network User Stations) (Exemption) Regulations 1997 (SI 1997/2137)",
     "adopted": "1997-09-02",
     "tookEffect": "1997-10-01",
     "type": "regulation",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1997/2137/made",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": "Council Directive 87/372/EEC on the frequency bands to be reserved for the coordinated introduction of public pan-European cellular digital land-based mobile communications in the Community",
     "adopted": "1987-06-25",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "directive",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/eudr/1987/372/adopted",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Amended in 2009 to open the band to other technologies; not repealed before taking effect (amendment not read)."
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": "Radio Regulations annexed to the International Telecommunication Convention, Atlantic City 1947",
     "adopted": "1947-10-02",
     "tookEffect": "1949-01-01",
     "type": "treaty",
     "source": "https://search.itu.int/history/HistoryDigitalCollectionDocLibrary/1.7.48.en.100.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Replaced by later Radio Regulations (Geneva 1959 and after)."
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": "CCIR Recommendation 478, technical characteristics of FM land mobile equipment and channel allocation (now ITU-R M.478)",
     "adopted": "1970-01-01",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "standard",
     "source": "https://www.itu.int/dms_pubrec/itu-r/rec/m/R-REC-M.478-5-199510-I!!PDF-E.pdf",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": "Revised 1974, 1978, 1982, 1990, 1995."
    }
   },
   "apart": [
    {
     "rule": "FCC licence to Southwestern Bell Telephone Co. for experimental mobile radiotelephone service at St. Louis",
     "adopted": "1946-06-01",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "licence",
     "source": "https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-FCC/FCC-Annual-Reports/FCC-12th-1946.pdf",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "us_federal"
    },
    {
     "rule": "The Wireless Telegraphy Apparatus (Approval) (Test Fees) Order 1988 (SI 1988/1949)",
     "adopted": "1988-11-07",
     "tookEffect": "1988-12-12",
     "type": "tax",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1988/1949/made",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "uk"
    },
    {
     "rule": "Licences to run the two national cellular radio networks (Racal-Vodafone and Telecom Securicor Cellular Radio, later Cellnet)",
     "adopted": "1983-01-01",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "licence",
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "uk"
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "name": "Nuclear power",
   "set": "pilot",
   "t0": "1954-06-26",
   "t0What": "Obninsk AM-1 (USSR) connected to the Mosenergo grid at 17:30 on 26 Jun 1954, the first nuclear plant to supply a public grid. D4 takes the earliest date: IAEA news and the IAEA Bulletin give 26 Jun; the IAEA country profile and the WNA reactor database give 27 Jun.",
   "t0Source": "https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/obninsk-beyond-nuclear-power-conference-looks-future (IAEA; seen only as quoted extracts; the page did not load)",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": "Maine Public Laws 1955, chapter 105: An Act to Coordinate Development and Regulatory Activities Relating to the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy (new R.S. chapter 52-A)",
     "adopted": "1955-01-01",
     "tookEffect": "1955-08-20",
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://lldc.mainelegislature.org/Open/Laws/1955/1955_PL_c105.pdf",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": "Atomic Energy Act of 1946, ch. 724, 60 Stat. 755",
     "adopted": "1946-08-01",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-60/pdf/STATUTE-60-Pg755.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "replaced by the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 (30 Aug 1954), after it took effect"
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": "Atomic Energy Act 1946 (9 & 10 Geo. 6 c. 80)",
     "adopted": "1946-11-06",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo6/9-10/80/enacted",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": "Euratom Council Regulation No 4 defining the investment projects to be communicated to the Commission in accordance with Article 41 of the Euratom Treaty",
     "adopted": "1958-09-15",
     "tookEffect": "1958-11-05",
     "type": "regulation",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/eut/euratom/annex/II",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "repealed and replaced by Regulation (Euratom) No 2587/1999, after it took effect"
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": "Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency",
     "adopted": "1956-10-26",
     "tookEffect": "1957-07-29",
     "type": "treaty",
     "source": "https://treaties.fcdo.gov.uk/data/Library2/pdf/1958-TS0019.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": "IEC 60231:1967 General principles of nuclear reactor instrumentation",
     "adopted": "1967-01-01",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "standard",
     "source": "https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/1068",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "IEC says the series is no longer up to date and will not be revised."
    }
   },
   "apart": []
  },
  {
   "name": "Satellites",
   "set": "pilot",
   "t0": "1957-10-04",
   "t0What": "Sputnik 1 launched; its radio beacon could be received by the public. Alternative commercial start for a sensitivity run: Early Bird (Intelsat I) service, 28 Jun 1965.",
   "t0Source": "https://www.nasa.gov/history/sputnik/sputorig.html (coder A)",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": null,
     "adopted": null,
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": null,
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": "National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958, Pub. L. 85-568, 72 Stat. 426",
     "adopted": "1958-07-29",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-72/pdf/STATUTE-72-Pg426.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": "Cable and Broadcasting Act 1984, Part II (s.37 provision of DBS services)",
     "adopted": "1984-07-26",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1984/46/enacted",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": "Council Directive 86/529/EEC on common technical specifications of the MAC/packet family of standards for direct satellite television broadcasting",
     "adopted": "1986-11-03",
     "tookEffect": "1986-11-06",
     "type": "directive",
     "source": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/celex/31986L0529",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": "Radio Regulations annexed to the International Telecommunication Convention (Geneva)",
     "adopted": "1959-12-21",
     "tookEffect": "1961-05-01",
     "type": "treaty",
     "source": "https://search.itu.int/history/HistoryDigitalCollectionDocLibrary/4.85.43.en.100.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": "CCIR (ITU) IXth Plenary Assembly, Los Angeles: first Recommendations on the selection of frequencies for telecommunication with and within space vehicles",
     "adopted": "1959-04-29",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "standard",
     "source": "https://www.itu.int/en/history/Pages/conference.aspx?conf=4.275",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    }
   },
   "apart": []
  },
  {
   "name": "Personal computer",
   "set": "new",
   "t0": "1975-01-01",
   "t0What": "MITS Altair 8800 kit offered for sale to the public as the cover story of Popular Electronics, January 1975 issue (month-level; the issue reached newsstands in December 1974).",
   "t0Source": "Computer History Museum catalogue entry for the Altair 8800 (https://www.computerhistory.org/collections/catalog/X58.82/): introduced as the cover story of the January 1975 Popular Electronics; price $397. Read via search summary of the museum page, not the magazine itself.",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": "Florida Computer Crimes Act (Laws of Florida chapter 78-92, codified as Florida Statutes chapter 815)",
     "adopted": "1978-01-01",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://flsenate.gov/Laws/Statutes/1998/Chapter815/All",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": "FCC First Report and Order, Docket No. 20780 (FCC 79-555), technical standards for computing equipment, 47 CFR Parts 2 and 15",
     "adopted": "1979-09-18",
     "tookEffect": "1979-11-19",
     "type": "regulation",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1979-10-16/pdf/FR-1979-10-16.pdf (44 FR 59530)",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": "Data Protection Act 1984 (c. 35)",
     "adopted": "1984-07-12",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1984/35/enacted",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Repealed and replaced by the Data Protection Act 1998, after it had taken effect."
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": "Council Directive 90/270/EEC on the minimum safety and health requirements for work with display screen equipment",
     "adopted": "1990-05-29",
     "tookEffect": "1992-12-31",
     "type": "directive",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/eudr/1990/270/adopted",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": "Council of Europe Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data (ETS No. 108)",
     "adopted": "1981-01-28",
     "tookEffect": "1985-10-01",
     "type": "treaty",
     "source": "https://treatydatabase.overheid.nl/en/Treaty/Details/000507",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Amended by Protocol CETS No. 223 (2018), not a repeal."
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": "ECMA-1, 6 bit input/output character code",
     "adopted": "1963-03-01",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "standard",
     "source": "https://ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-1/",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    }
   },
   "apart": []
  },
  {
   "name": "The web and personal data",
   "set": "pilot",
   "t0": "1991-08-06",
   "t0What": "Tim Berners-Lee announced the World Wide Web publicly (alt.hypertext); anyone on the internet could use it. CERN put the software in the public domain on 30 Apr 1993.",
   "t0Source": "https://home.cern/science/computing/birth-web/short-history-web (coder A; the page later returned 404 to coder B)",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": "Virginia Acts of Assembly 2000, ch. 405 (HB 513), amending Code of Virginia 2.1-380",
     "adopted": "2000-04-04",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://legacylis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?001+ful+CHAP0405",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": "Children's Online Privacy Protection Act of 1998 (Pub. L. 105-277, Div. C, Title XIII)",
     "adopted": "1998-10-21",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-105publ277/html/PLAW-105publ277.htm",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": "Privacy and Electronic Communications (EC Directive) Regulations 2003 (SI 2003/2426), regulation 6",
     "adopted": "2003-09-18",
     "tookEffect": "2003-12-11",
     "type": "regulation",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2003/2426/made",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": "Directive 2002/58/EC on privacy and electronic communications, art. 5(3)",
     "adopted": "2002-07-12",
     "tookEffect": "2002-07-31",
     "type": "directive",
     "source": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/celex/32002L0058",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": "African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection (Malabo)",
     "adopted": "2014-06-27",
     "tookEffect": "2023-06-08",
     "type": "treaty",
     "source": "https://au.int/en/treaties/african-union-convention-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": "IETF RFC 2109, HTTP State Management Mechanism (Standards Track)",
     "adopted": "1997-02-01",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "standard",
     "source": "https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc2109",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Obsoleted by RFC 2965 (2000); now Historic."
    }
   },
   "apart": []
  },
  {
   "name": "Commercial email",
   "set": "new",
   "t0": "1994-04-12",
   "t0What": "Canter and Siegel 'Green Card Lottery' advertisement posted to thousands of Usenet newsgroups: the first mass unsolicited commercial message to reach the general public through an ordinary internet service provider. Chosen over the 1978-05-03 Digital Equipment Corporation advertisement sent to several hundred ARPANET users, because ARPANET was a closed government research network, not the general public.",
   "t0Source": "Second-hand only (date as widely reported; the original posting survives in Usenet archives, which would settle it). Confidence for t0 is low. Alternative t0 1978-05-03 (DEC message by Gary Thuerk on ARPANET), also second-hand.",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": "Nevada SB 13 (1997), Statutes of Nevada 1997 chapter 341 (NRS 41.705 to 41.735)",
     "adopted": "1997-07-08",
     "tookEffect": "1998-07-01",
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.leg.state.nv.us/Statutes/69th/Stats199709.html",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": "CAN-SPAM Act of 2003, Pub. L. 108-187",
     "adopted": "2003-12-16",
     "tookEffect": "2004-01-01",
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-108publ187/html/PLAW-108publ187.htm",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": "The Electronic Commerce (EC Directive) Regulations 2002 (SI 2002/2013), regulation 8",
     "adopted": "2002-07-30",
     "tookEffect": "2002-08-21",
     "type": "regulation",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2002/2013/made",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": "Directive 97/7/EC on the protection of consumers in respect of distance contracts, Article 10 with Annex I",
     "adopted": "1997-05-20",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "directive",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/eudr/1997/7/pdfs/eudr_19970007_adopted_en.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Repealed by Directive 2011/83/EU with effect from 13 June 2014, after it had taken effect."
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": "ECOWAS Supplementary Act A/SA.1/01/10 on Personal Data Protection within ECOWAS, Article 34 (prohibition of direct prospecting)",
     "adopted": "2010-02-16",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "treaty",
     "source": "https://www.statewatch.org/news/2013/mar/ecowas-dp-act.pdf",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": "IETF RFC 2505, BCP 30, Anti-Spam Recommendations for SMTP MTAs",
     "adopted": "1999-02-01",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "standard",
     "source": "https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc2505.txt",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    }
   },
   "apart": [
    {
     "rule": "CompuServe Inc. v. Cyber Promotions, Inc., 962 F. Supp. 1015 (S.D. Ohio), preliminary injunction against sending unsolicited bulk advertising email to CompuServe subscribers",
     "adopted": "1997-02-03",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "ruling",
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "us_federal"
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "name": "Online shopping",
   "set": "new",
   "t0": "1994-08-11",
   "t0What": "NetMarket processed what was reported as the first secure retail purchase over the internet (a CD), New Hampshire. Earlier videotex teleshopping (Gateshead shopping scheme 1984; CompuServe Electronic Mall 1984; Minitel) reached smaller publics. Reconciled under D4: PREREG names retail over the web (1994/95); the dial-up teleshopping start (Comp-U-Star, about July 1979, coding B) is the sensitivity alternative.",
   "t0Source": "Not read at a primary source; reported by the New York Times on 12 August 1994 (the page did not load)",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": "California Business and Professions Code section 17538, as amended in 1996 to cover sellers doing business through the Internet",
     "adopted": "1996-01-01",
     "tookEffect": "1997-01-01",
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://corporate.findlaw.com/law-library/california-consumer-protection-laws-extend-to-internet-vendors.html",
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": "Restore Online Shoppers' Confidence Act, Pub. L. 111-345",
     "adopted": "2010-12-29",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-111publ345/html/PLAW-111publ345.htm",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": "Consumer Protection (Distance Selling) Regulations 2000 (SI 2000/2334)",
     "adopted": "2000-08-31",
     "tookEffect": "2000-10-31",
     "type": "regulation",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2000/2334/made",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Revoked and replaced by the Consumer Contracts (Information, Cancellation and Additional Charges) Regulations 2013 for contracts from 13 June 2014 (from memory, not checked at source)"
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": "Directive 97/7/EC on the protection of consumers in respect of distance contracts",
     "adopted": "1997-05-20",
     "tookEffect": "1997-06-04",
     "type": "directive",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/eudr/1997/7/adopted",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Repealed by Directive 2011/83/EU (Consumer Rights Directive) from 13 June 2014 (from memory)"
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": "e-ASEAN Framework Agreement",
     "adopted": "2000-11-24",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "treaty",
     "source": "https://worldjpn.net/documents/texts/asean/20001124.O2E.html",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": "ISO 10008:2013, Quality management, customer satisfaction, guidelines for business-to-consumer electronic commerce transactions",
     "adopted": "2013-06-01",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "standard",
     "source": "https://www.iso.org/standard/54081.html",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    }
   },
   "apart": [
    {
     "rule": "Internet Tax Freedom Act (Title XI of Division C of the Omnibus Consolidated and Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act, 1999, Pub. L. 105-277)",
     "adopted": "1998-10-21",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "tax",
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "us_federal"
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "name": "Social media",
   "set": "pilot",
   "t0": "1997-01-01",
   "t0What": "SixDegrees.com launched in 1997, the first site combining profiles and friend lists. Known only to the year: D7 sets 1 Jan 1997 and flags it (both coders had used 1 Jul).",
   "t0Source": "boyd and Ellison (2007), Social Network Sites: Definition, History, and Scholarship (second-hand; neither coder read it for this study). Year-level, D7 flag.",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": "North Carolina Session Law 2008-218, section 6 (G.S. 14-202.5, ban on use of commercial social networking Web sites by registered sex offenders)",
     "adopted": "2008-08-16",
     "tookEffect": "2008-12-01",
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.ncleg.gov/EnactedLegislation/SessionLaws/HTML/2007-2008/SL2008-218.html",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Held unconstitutional in Packingham v. North Carolina (US Supreme Court, 19 Jun 2017); not before it took effect."
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": "Broadband Data Improvement Act (Pub. L. 110-385), Title II Protecting Children in the 21st Century Act, sec. 215",
     "adopted": "2008-10-10",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-110publ385/html/PLAW-110publ385.htm",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": "Online Safety Act 2023",
     "adopted": "2023-10-26",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2023/50/enacted",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": "Directive (EU) 2018/1808 amending the Audiovisual Media Services Directive (video-sharing platform services)",
     "adopted": "2018-11-14",
     "tookEffect": "2018-12-18",
     "type": "directive",
     "source": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/celex/32018L1808",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": null,
     "adopted": null,
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": null,
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": "W3C Recommendation: ActivityPub",
     "adopted": "2018-01-23",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "standard",
     "source": "https://www.w3.org/TR/activitypub/",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    }
   },
   "apart": []
  },
  {
   "name": "Facial recognition",
   "set": "new",
   "t0": "1998-10-14",
   "t0What": "Newham Council in east London switched on face recognition software (Mandrake, from Software and Systems International; the borough later ran Visionics FaceIt) on its town-centre CCTV cameras to pick known offenders out of crowds, as a six-month trial",
   "t0Source": "https://diswww.mit.edu/menelaus.MIT.EDU/privacy/135 (contemporary report, launch on 14 October 1998, 140 council cameras); UK Parliament POSTnote 175 (2002) says Newham introduced face recognition in October 1998 (seen only as a quoted extract; the page did not load); a BBC report of 13 October 1998 was seen only as a mailing-list repost",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": "Illinois Biometric Information Privacy Act (Public Act 95-994, SB 2400)",
     "adopted": "2008-10-03",
     "tookEffect": "2008-10-03",
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://ftp.ilga.gov/Legislation/95/BillStatus/HTML/09500SB2400.html",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": null,
     "adopted": null,
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": null,
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": "Data Protection Act 2018 (c. 12), sections 35 and 205",
     "adopted": "2018-05-23",
     "tookEffect": "2018-05-25",
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2018/12/section/205/enacted",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": "Regulation (EU) 2016/679, General Data Protection Regulation, Articles 4(14) and 9(1)",
     "adopted": "2016-04-27",
     "tookEffect": "2018-05-25",
     "type": "regulation",
     "source": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/celex/32016R0679",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": "Protocol amending the Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data (CETS No. 223, Convention 108+), Strasbourg",
     "adopted": "2018-10-10",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "treaty",
     "source": "https://rm.coe.int/16808ac918",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": "ISO/IEC 19794-5:2005, Information technology, Biometric data interchange formats, Part 5: Face image data",
     "adopted": "2005-06-29",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "standard",
     "source": "https://www.iso.org/standard/38749.html",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Replaced by ISO/IEC 19794-5:2011 (new edition)"
    }
   },
   "apart": [
    {
     "rule": "DHS and CBP final rule, Collection of Biometric Data From Aliens Upon Entry to and Departure From the United States (90 FR 48604)",
     "adopted": "2025-10-27",
     "tookEffect": "2025-12-26",
     "type": "permit",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2025-10-27/html/2025-19655.htm",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "us_federal"
    },
    {
     "rule": "FTC v. Facebook, stipulated order (privacy settlement including facial recognition terms)",
     "adopted": "2019-07-24",
     "tookEffect": "2020-04-23",
     "type": "ruling",
     "source": "https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2019/07/ftc-imposes-5-billion-penalty-sweeping-new-privacy-restrictions-facebook",
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "us_federal"
    },
    {
     "rule": "FTC Decision and Order, In the Matter of Everalbum, Inc. (File 192-3172)",
     "adopted": "2021-05-07",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "ruling",
     "source": "https://www.ftc.gov/legal-library/browse/cases-proceedings/192-3172-everalbum-inc-matter",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "us_federal"
    },
    {
     "rule": "Executive Order 14074, Advancing Effective, Accountable Policing and Criminal Justice Practices (87 FR 32945)",
     "adopted": "2022-05-25",
     "tookEffect": "2022-05-25",
     "type": "executive order",
     "source": "https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/full_text/text/2022/05/31/2022-11810.txt",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Rescinded by Executive Order 14148 of 20 January 2025 (90 FR 8237)",
     "level": "us_federal"
    },
    {
     "rule": "FTC v. Rite Aid Corporation, stipulated order for permanent injunction (E.D. Pa., No. 2:23-cv-05023)",
     "adopted": "2024-02-26",
     "tookEffect": "2024-02-26",
     "type": "ruling",
     "source": "https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2023/12/rite-aid-banned-using-ai-facial-recognition-after-ftc-says-retailer-deployed-technology-without",
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "us_federal"
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "name": "App stores",
   "set": "new",
   "t0": "2008-07-10",
   "t0What": "Apple's App Store opened through iTunes 7.7 on 10 July 2008 with more than 500 apps; it reached iPhones through the free iPhone 2.0 software update on 11 July 2008.",
   "t0Source": "https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2008/07/10iPhone-3G-on-Sale-Tomorrow/",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": "Utah S.B. 142 (2025), App Store Accountability Act",
     "adopted": "2025-03-26",
     "tookEffect": "2025-05-07",
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://le.utah.gov/~2025/bills/sbillenr/SB0142.pdf",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": "Protecting Americans from Foreign Adversary Controlled Applications Act, Division H of Pub. L. 118-50",
     "adopted": "2024-04-24",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-118publ50/html/PLAW-118publ50.htm",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": "Russia (Sanctions) (EU Exit) (Amendment) (No. 9) Regulations 2022 (SI 2022/477), new regulation 54A",
     "adopted": "2022-04-27",
     "tookEffect": "2022-04-29",
     "type": "regulation",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2022/477/made",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": "Directive (EU) 2016/1148 on security of network and information systems (NIS Directive)",
     "adopted": "2016-07-06",
     "tookEffect": "2016-08-08",
     "type": "directive",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/eudr/2016/1148/introduction/adopted",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Repealed by Directive (EU) 2022/2555 (NIS2) from 18 October 2024 (from memory)"
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": null,
     "adopted": null,
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": null,
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": null,
     "adopted": null,
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": null,
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    }
   },
   "apart": [
    {
     "rule": "FTC consent order, In the Matter of Apple Inc. (in-app purchases by children)",
     "adopted": "2014-03-27",
     "tookEffect": "2014-03-27",
     "type": "ruling",
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "us_federal"
    },
    {
     "rule": "Department of Commerce, Identification of Prohibited Transactions to Implement Executive Order 13942 (TikTok)",
     "adopted": "2020-09-18",
     "tookEffect": "2020-09-24",
     "type": "executive order",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2020-09-24/pdf/2020-21193.pdf",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": "Enjoined by federal courts before its app store prohibition took effect (September 2020); EO 13942 was revoked by EO 14034 on 2021-06-09.",
     "level": "us_federal"
    },
    {
     "rule": "Epic Games, Inc. v. Apple Inc., N.D. Cal. No. 4:20-cv-05640-YGR, rule 52 order and permanent injunction",
     "adopted": "2021-09-10",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "ruling",
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "us_federal"
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "name": "Cryptocurrency",
   "set": "new",
   "t0": "2009-01-08",
   "t0What": "Satoshi Nakamoto announced Bitcoin v0.1, the first public release of the software, on the Cryptography mailing list ('Thu Jan 8 14:27:40 EST 2009'). The genesis block is dated 3 January 2009, but nobody else could run the software before the release.",
   "t0Source": "https://www.metzdowd.com/pipermail/cryptography/2009-January/014994.html",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": "New York Department of Financial Services virtual currency regulation (BitLicense), 23 NYCRR Part 200",
     "adopted": "2015-06-03",
     "tookEffect": "2015-06-24",
     "type": "regulation",
     "source": "https://www.dfs.ny.gov/apps_and_licensing/virtual_currency_businesses",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": "Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (Pub. L. 117-58), section 80603, information reporting for brokers and digital assets",
     "adopted": "2021-11-15",
     "tookEffect": "2024-01-01",
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/PLAW-117publ58",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": "Child Support (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations 2018 (SI 2018/1279), regulation 2, inserting regulation 69A into the Child Support Maintenance Calculation Regulations 2012",
     "adopted": "2018-11-29",
     "tookEffect": "2018-12-13",
     "type": "regulation",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2018/1279/made",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": "Directive (EU) 2018/843 (fifth anti-money laundering directive)",
     "adopted": "2018-05-30",
     "tookEffect": "2018-07-09",
     "type": "directive",
     "source": "https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32018L0843",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": "United Nations Convention against Cybercrime (General Assembly resolution 79/243)",
     "adopted": "2024-12-24",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "treaty",
     "source": "https://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/n24/426/74/pdf/n2442674.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": "IEEE Std 2140.1-2020, Standard for General Requirements for Cryptocurrency Exchanges",
     "adopted": "2020-09-24",
     "tookEffect": "2020-11-04",
     "type": "standard",
     "source": "https://standards.ieee.org/ieee/2140.1/7615/",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    }
   },
   "apart": [
    {
     "rule": "CFTC order In re Coinflip, Inc. (Derivabit) and Francisco Riordan, CFTC Docket No. 15-29",
     "adopted": "2015-09-17",
     "tookEffect": "2015-09-17",
     "type": "ruling",
     "source": "https://www.cftc.gov/PressRoom/PressReleases/pr7231-15.html",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "us_federal"
    },
    {
     "rule": "Executive Order 13827, Taking Additional Steps to Address the Situation in Venezuela",
     "adopted": "2018-03-19",
     "tookEffect": "2018-03-19",
     "type": "executive order",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2018-03-21/html/2018-05916.htm",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "us_federal"
    },
    {
     "rule": "Court of Justice of the EU, Case C-264/14 Skatteverket v David Hedqvist",
     "adopted": "2015-10-22",
     "tookEffect": "2015-10-22",
     "type": "ruling",
     "source": "https://www.taxheaven.gr/attachment/1193 (copy of CJEU Press Release No 128/15)",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "eu"
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "name": "Ride-hailing",
   "set": "pilot",
   "t0": "2010-05-31",
   "t0What": "UberCab launched its app-hailed car service in San Francisco. Uber's own post of 22 Dec 2010 says \"San Francisco launch day was May 31st, 2010\". Both coders had July 2010 (A year-level, B 5 Jul from secondary reports); D4 takes the earliest date at a primary source.",
   "t0Source": "https://www.uber.com/us/en/newsroom/ubers-founding/ (Uber newsroom, dated 22 Dec 2010, read by the reconciler)",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": "California Public Utilities Commission Decision 13-09-045 (Rulemaking 12-12-011), rules for Transportation Network Companies",
     "adopted": "2013-09-19",
     "tookEffect": "2013-09-23",
     "type": "regulation",
     "source": "https://docs.cpuc.ca.gov/PublishedDocs/Published/G000/M077/K192/77192335.PDF",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": "Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021 (Pub. L. 116-260), sec. 209, Medicaid coverage of certain medical transportation",
     "adopted": "2020-12-27",
     "tookEffect": "2020-12-27",
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-116publ260/html/PLAW-116publ260.htm",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": null,
     "adopted": null,
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": null,
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": "Directive (EU) 2024/2831 on improving working conditions in platform work",
     "adopted": "2024-10-23",
     "tookEffect": "2024-12-01",
     "type": "directive",
     "source": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/celex/32024L2831",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": null,
     "adopted": null,
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": null,
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": null,
     "adopted": null,
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": null,
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    }
   },
   "apart": [
    {
     "rule": "New York City Taxi and Limousine Commission resolution approving a pilot program to evaluate electronic hail applications",
     "adopted": "2012-12-13",
     "tookEffect": "2013-02-15",
     "type": "licence",
     "source": "https://www.nyc.gov/assets/tlc/downloads/pdf/ehail_pilot_res_final_as_passed_12_13_12.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Pilot for twelve months; later replaced by TLC e-hail licensing rules approved 29 Jan 2015.",
     "level": "local"
    },
    {
     "rule": "Transport for London v Uber London Ltd [2015] EWHC 2918 (Admin) (whether the Uber app is a taximeter)",
     "adopted": "2015-10-16",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "ruling",
     "source": "https://caselaw.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ewhc/admin/2015/2918",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "uk"
    },
    {
     "rule": "Court of Justice of the EU, Case C-434/15 Asociacion Profesional Elite Taxi v Uber Systems Spain SL",
     "adopted": "2017-12-20",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "ruling",
     "source": "https://curia.europa.eu/juris/liste.jsf?num=C-434/15",
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "eu"
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "name": "Consumer drones",
   "set": "pilot",
   "t0": "2010-07-01",
   "t0What": "Parrot AR.Drone, the first mass-market consumer quadcopter, on sale: an update dated 07/2010 on iphon.fr says it was sold exclusively at Fnac in France; US sale at Brookstone from 3 Sep 2010 (trade press). Known only to the month: D7 sets 1 Jul 2010 and flags it.",
   "t0Source": "https://www.iphon.fr/?p=10064 (July 2010 update, second-hand); US date in Computerworld and General Aviation News reports seen through search. Parrot press releases not read.",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": "Virginia Acts of Assembly 2013, chapter 755 (HB 2012): moratorium on use of unmanned aircraft systems by state and local law enforcement and regulatory entities until 1 Jul 2015",
     "adopted": "2013-04-03",
     "tookEffect": "2013-07-01",
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://legacylis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?131+sum+HB2012",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Moratorium expired 1 Jul 2015 by its own terms."
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": "FAA Modernization and Reform Act of 2012 (Pub. L. 112-95), Title III Subtitle B Unmanned Aircraft Systems, ss.331-336",
     "adopted": "2012-02-14",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-112publ95/html/PLAW-112publ95.htm",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Section 336 was replaced by the FAA Reauthorization Act of 2018 (49 U.S.C. 44809); not before it took effect."
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": "Air Navigation (Amendment) Order 1996 (SI 1996/1301), new article 76A Regulation of small aircraft and definition in article 118(1)",
     "adopted": "1996-05-15",
     "tookEffect": "1996-06-19",
     "type": "regulation",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1996/1301/made",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": "Regulation (EU) 2018/1139 on common rules in the field of civil aviation and establishing EASA (Section VII, unmanned aircraft)",
     "adopted": "2018-07-04",
     "tookEffect": "2018-09-11",
     "type": "regulation",
     "source": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/celex/32018R1139",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": "Protocol of 15 June 1929 amending the Convention relating to the Regulation of Aerial Navigation (new paragraph in art. 15)",
     "adopted": "1929-06-15",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "treaty",
     "source": "https://syv.noiselab.casper.aero/uploads/uploads/140/Paris_Convention_Summary_Paris_France_10_13_1919.pdf",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": "3GPP TS 22.125 Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) support in 3GPP; Stage 1, version 16.0.0 (Release 16)",
     "adopted": "2018-12-14",
     "tookEffect": "2019-01-04",
     "type": "standard",
     "source": "https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=3545",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    }
   },
   "apart": []
  },
  {
   "name": "Shared e-scooters",
   "set": "pilot",
   "t0": "2017-09-01",
   "t0What": "Bird launched dockless shared electric scooters in Santa Monica, California, in September 2017. Known only to the month: first day, D7 flag.",
   "t0Source": "Second-hand (both coders); Bird's own announcement not read.",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": "City of Santa Monica emergency ordinance establishing temporary regulations for shared mobility systems and devices (dockless systems made subject to vending rules; impound fee)",
     "adopted": "2018-03-06",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://santamonica.gov/press/2018/03/07/santa-monica-city-council-approves-ordinance-outlining-temporary-regulations-for-shared-mobility-systems",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": "Emergency ordinance expiring 1 Jan 2019 by its own terms; replaced by the city's shared mobility pilot programme later in 2018."
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": null,
     "adopted": null,
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": null,
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": "Electric Scooter Trials and Traffic Signs (Coronavirus) Regulations and General Directions 2020 (SI 2020/663)",
     "adopted": "2020-06-30",
     "tookEffect": "2020-07-04",
     "type": "regulation",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2020/663/made",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": null,
     "adopted": null,
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": null,
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": null,
     "adopted": null,
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": null,
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": null,
     "adopted": null,
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": null,
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    }
   },
   "apart": []
  },
  {
   "name": "Deepfakes",
   "set": "new",
   "t0": "2017-12-11",
   "t0What": "Motherboard reported face-swapped videos of real actresses posted on Reddit by the user 'deepfakes', made with open-source machine learning libraries (Keras with TensorFlow); the first such videos made with public tools to reach a public audience",
   "t0Source": "https://www.vice.com/en/article/gydydm/gal-gadot-fake-ai-porn",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": "Virginia HB 2678 (2019), Acts of Assembly 2019 chapter 490, amending Code of Virginia 18.2-386.2",
     "adopted": "2019-03-18",
     "tookEffect": "2019-07-01",
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://legacylis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?191+sum+HB2678",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": "TAKE IT DOWN Act (Public Law 119-12)",
     "adopted": "2025-05-19",
     "tookEffect": "2025-05-19",
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-119publ12/html/PLAW-119publ12.htm",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": "Online Safety Act 2023 (c. 50), sections 187 and 188 (Sexual Offences Act 2003, new sections 66A and 66B)",
     "adopted": "2023-10-26",
     "tookEffect": "2024-01-31",
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2023/50/section/188/enacted",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": "Directive (EU) 2024/1385 on combating violence against women and domestic violence, Article 5(1)(b)",
     "adopted": "2024-05-14",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "directive",
     "source": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/celex/32024L1385",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": "Council of Europe Framework Convention on Artificial Intelligence and Human Rights, Democracy and the Rule of Law (CETS No. 225)",
     "adopted": "2024-09-05",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "treaty",
     "source": "https://rm.coe.int/1680afae3c",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": "ISO/IEC 21617-1:2025, Information technology, JPEG Trust, Part 1: Core foundation",
     "adopted": "2025-01-28",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "standard",
     "source": "https://jpeg.org/jpegtrust/",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Second edition ISO/IEC 21617-1:2026 published 2026-08-26"
    }
   },
   "apart": [
    {
     "rule": "Executive Order 14110, Safe, Secure, and Trustworthy Development and Use of Artificial Intelligence, section 4.5 (88 FR 75191)",
     "adopted": "2023-10-30",
     "tookEffect": "2023-10-30",
     "type": "executive order",
     "source": "https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/full_text/text/2023/11/01/2023-24283.txt",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Rescinded by Executive Order 14148 of 20 January 2025 (90 FR 8237)",
     "level": "us_federal"
    },
    {
     "rule": "FCC Declaratory Ruling FCC 24-17 (CG Docket 23-362): AI-generated voices are artificial voices under the TCPA",
     "adopted": "2024-02-02",
     "tookEffect": "2024-02-08",
     "type": "ruling",
     "source": "https://docs.fcc.gov/public/attachments/FCC-24-17A1.pdf",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "us_federal"
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "name": "Germline gene editing",
   "set": "pilot",
   "t0": "2018-11-25",
   "t0What": "He Jiankui announced the birth of twin girls whose embryos he had edited with CRISPR (CCR5). His lab's videos went online on 25 Nov 2018 US time (26 Nov in China); the AP report is dated 26 Nov. D4 takes the earliest date. The first CRISPR editing of human embryos in the lab was published 18 Apr 2015.",
   "t0Source": "Second-hand (AP report and He's online videos of 25 and 26 Nov 2018; not read by either coder or the reconciler).",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": null,
     "adopted": null,
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": null,
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": null,
     "adopted": null,
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": null,
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": "Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990, Schedule 2 paragraph 1(4)",
     "adopted": "1990-11-01",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1990/37/schedule/2/enacted",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": "Directive 2001/20/EC on good clinical practice in clinical trials, Article 9(6)",
     "adopted": "2001-04-04",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "directive",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/eudr/2001/20/article/9/adopted",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Repealed by Regulation (EU) No 536/2014 (which keeps the prohibition); not before it took effect."
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": "Council of Europe Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (Oviedo Convention, CETS 164), Article 13 (regional)",
     "adopted": "1997-04-04",
     "tookEffect": "1999-12-01",
     "type": "treaty",
     "source": "https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1999-20638",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": "ISO 5058-1:2021 Biotechnology, Genome editing, Part 1: Vocabulary",
     "adopted": "2021-11-10",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "standard",
     "source": "https://genorma.com/en/standards/iso-5058-1-2021",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    }
   },
   "apart": [
    {
     "rule": "Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2016 (Pub. L. 114-113), Div. A, sec. 749 (FDA rider)",
     "adopted": "2015-12-18",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "rider",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-114publ113/html/PLAW-114publ113.htm",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "us_federal"
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "name": "Self-driving taxis",
   "set": "new",
   "t0": "2020-10-08",
   "t0What": "Waymo opened its fully driverless ride-hailing service (no safety driver) in the Phoenix area, starting that day with Waymo One members and widening to the general public through its app over the following weeks",
   "t0Source": "https://waymo.com/blog/2020/10/waymo-is-opening-its-fully-driverless-service-in-phoenix/",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": "Nevada AB 511 (2011), Statutes of Nevada 2011 chapter 472 (NRS 482A)",
     "adopted": "2011-06-16",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.leg.state.nv.us/Statutes/76th2011/Stats201123.html",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": "NHTSA Standing General Order 2021-01, Incident Reporting for Automated Driving Systems (ADS) and Level 2 Advanced Driver Assistance Systems",
     "adopted": "2021-06-29",
     "tookEffect": "2021-06-29",
     "type": "regulation",
     "source": "https://www.nhtsa.gov/sites/nhtsa.gov/files/2021-06/Standing_General_Order_2021_01-digital-06292021.pdf",
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": "Amended 12 August 2021, 5 April 2023 and again in 2025 (third amended order effective 16 June 2025); the earlier versions stay enforceable"
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": "Automated and Electric Vehicles Act 2018 (c. 18), Part 1",
     "adopted": "2018-07-19",
     "tookEffect": "2021-04-21",
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2018/18/introduction/enacted",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": "Regulation (EU) 2019/2144 (General Safety Regulation), Article 11",
     "adopted": "2019-11-27",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "regulation",
     "source": "https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32019R2144",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": "UN Regulation No. 185 on Automated Driving Systems, annexed to the 1958 Agreement (adopted at the 199th session of the World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations, WP.29)",
     "adopted": "2026-06-24",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "treaty",
     "source": "https://unece.org/sustainable-development/press/unece-adopts-first-ever-global-rules-allowing-fully-autonomous",
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": "ISO 22737:2021, Intelligent transport systems, Low-speed automated driving (LSAD) systems for predefined routes, Performance requirements, system requirements and performance test procedures",
     "adopted": "2021-07-06",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "standard",
     "source": "https://www.iso.org/standard/73767.html",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    }
   },
   "apart": [
    {
     "rule": "NHTSA grant of temporary exemption to Nuro, Inc. for a low-speed vehicle with an automated driving system (85 FR 7826)",
     "adopted": "2020-02-11",
     "tookEffect": "2020-02-11",
     "type": "licence",
     "source": "https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2020/02/11/2020-02668/nuro-inc-grant-of-temporary-exemption-for-a-low-speed-vehicle-with-an-automated-driving-system",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "us_federal"
    },
    {
     "rule": "1968 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic, new Article 34 bis (automated driving)",
     "adopted": "2022-01-14",
     "tookEffect": "2022-07-14",
     "type": "permit",
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "treaty"
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "name": "Generative AI",
   "set": "pilot",
   "t0": "2022-11-30",
   "t0What": "OpenAI released ChatGPT to the public as a free research preview. Earlier: GPT-3 API without a waitlist from 18 Nov 2021; Stable Diffusion public release 22 Aug 2022.",
   "t0Source": "https://openai.com/index/chatgpt/ (OpenAI, Introducing ChatGPT, 30 Nov 2022; the page did not load for either coder)",
   "levels": {
    "local": {
     "rule": "Michigan Public Act 263 of 2023 (HB 5141): campaign finance; using artificial intelligence in certain political advertisements; require disclosure",
     "adopted": "2023-11-30",
     "tookEffect": "2024-02-13",
     "type": "statute",
     "source": "https://www.legislature.mi.gov/Bills/Bill?ObjectName=2023-HB-5141",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "us_federal": {
     "rule": "Bureau of Industry and Security interim final rule: Framework for Artificial Intelligence Diffusion (90 FR 4544), new ECCN 4E091",
     "adopted": "2025-01-13",
     "tookEffect": "2025-01-13",
     "type": "regulation",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2025-01-15/html/2025-00636.htm",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "BIS announced in May 2025 that it would rescind the rule and not enforce it, before the 15 May 2025 compliance date (not read at source)."
    },
    "uk": {
     "rule": null,
     "adopted": null,
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": null,
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "M",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "eu": {
     "rule": "Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence (AI Act), Chapter V general-purpose AI models",
     "adopted": "2024-06-13",
     "tookEffect": "2024-08-01",
     "type": "regulation",
     "source": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/celex/32024R1689",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "treaty": {
     "rule": "Council of Europe Framework Convention on Artificial Intelligence and Human Rights, Democracy and the Rule of Law (CETS 225)",
     "adopted": "2024-09-05",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "treaty",
     "source": "https://verdragenbank.overheid.nl/en/Treaty/Details/013947_p.html",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    },
    "standard": {
     "rule": "ISO/IEC 22989:2022 Information technology, Artificial intelligence, Artificial intelligence concepts and terminology",
     "adopted": "2022-07-19",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "standard",
     "source": "https://webstore.iec.ch/en/publication/77839",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": null
    }
   },
   "apart": [
    {
     "rule": "California Executive Order N-12-23 on generative artificial intelligence",
     "adopted": "2023-09-06",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "executive order",
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "local"
    },
    {
     "rule": "Executive Order 14110, Safe, Secure, and Trustworthy Development and Use of Artificial Intelligence",
     "adopted": "2023-10-30",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "executive order",
     "source": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2023-11-01/html/2023-24283.htm",
     "confidence": "H",
     "repealed": "Revoked by executive order on 20 Jan 2025 (from my own knowledge, not read).",
     "level": "us_federal"
    },
    {
     "rule": "Federal Communications Commission Declaratory Ruling (FCC 24-17) that AI-generated voices are artificial under the Telephone Consumer Protection Act",
     "adopted": "2024-02-08",
     "tookEffect": null,
     "type": "ruling",
     "source": null,
     "confidence": "L",
     "repealed": null,
     "level": "us_federal"
    }
   ]
  }
 ]
}